Exploration of Identity in American Literature
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Exploration of Identity in American Literature
Introduction
Identity can be defined as an amalgamation of all the personal attributes that make a group or person. Identity is a person’s manifest individuality; a persistent and importunate quality that makes the person stand out.Individual identity defines individuals while collective identity defines groups. According to Letourneau, individuals have a profound ontological desire to be part of a collective and to take part in the life of this collective entity (Létourneau 2001, 5).
Thus, identity is not only defined by the inherent and cognitive individual philosophies and belief systems but is also influenced and shaped by the collective whole.In other words, personal identities are not just the set of personal traits and attributes a person has but also includes individuals’ membership to a particular group or society. The key concept here is about situating a person within a group or society. The membership may either be through ascription by others or it may be through attribution by oneself and the society or group may be imaginary or real. Thus, personal identity is described as “the distinctive character belonging to any given individual, or shared by all members of a particular social category or group” (Rummens 2001, 3).
Besides personal and collective identity, there is also social identity. A distinction is made between these three forms of identities by Snow who posits that “personal identities are the attributes and meaning attributed to oneself by the actor; they are self-designations and self-attributions regarded as personally distinctive” (Snow 2001, 2). At the same time, Snow defines social identities as “the identities attributed or imputed to others in an attempt to situate them in social space. They are grounded in established social roles” (Snow 2001, 2). An important aspect of identity is that it is bounded meaning that while identity bestows a degree of identicalness, it also imbues a degree of uniqueness from individuals outside a group (Muir 2007).
Identity is composed of several characteristics. The first characteristic of identity is that identities are constructed. The construction of identities implies that identities are fashioned, formed, and originated by people, groups, and their communities. Thus, identities are not predetermined and elemental (Rummens, 2001; Ashmore et al., 2004). The second characteristic of identities is that identities are negotiated. According to Muir, identities are seldom dictated or proclaimed. Rather, they are continuously declared, challenged, and agreed upon consultatively. Acceptance or rejection of the identities is permissible but not final and can constantly change (Muir, 2007).
Thirdly, identities are dynamic and are not cast in stone but are mutable, supple, and pliable. They can be shaped by the hand of time and mutate based on geography. As stated by Letourneau, identity is an animate and evolving creature, a “continual re-interpretation of the self” (Létourneau 2001, 2).
Fourthly, identities are multiple. The multiplicity of identities means that identities can occur in many different and diverse forms. One person can have more than one identity and these compound identities may intersect, coincide, clash, and conflict (Létourneau 2001, 3). A final characteristic of identities is that identities are relational. The relational nature of identity is discussed by a number of writers. As argued by Létourneau, identity is a double-faced relational entity. This duality of identity means that it is other-referenced and that it is inter-subjective, socially entrenched, and constructed in concert with the prevailing social milieu. By other-referenced, it is meant that identity bespeaks about the identicalness of a group while projecting the dissimilarity of individuals or groups who are outside a particular group (outsiders) (Létourneau 2001, 4).
This paper explores the theme of identity in American literature. A number of texts are used to examine this theme. The selected texts are James Henry’s “Daisy Miller”, Melville Herman’s “Billy Budd”, Miller Arthur’s “Death of a Salesman”, Morrison Toni’s “Sula”, Mark Twain’s “The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson”, and August Wilson’s “Fences”. The exploration of the identity theme in this paper is based on the definitions proffered above and the thematic, stylistic, and other aspects of the mentioned literature (Létourneau 2001, 5).
1. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Penguin Group, 1998. Print
Identity is one of the major themes addressed in Arthur Miller’s play, “Death of a Salesman”. The play provides a powerful rendition of an individual’s loss of identity and the incapacity of the individual to acknowledge change occurring in the collective and at the individual level. The play is centered on Willy Loman who is the central character in the book and his family. Loman and all his family members suffer from some form of identity crisis. They are all living in a past that occludes them from accepting current reality and this contributes to their own perceptions of self and their identities.
Willy constructs his own identity based on achievements and self-ascription. Whereas he is a second-rate salesman, he refuses to accept himself thus and instead perceives himself as a highly-successful salesman who is living the American dream and who is invaluable to this company and the country. He refuses to accept reality and chooses instead to live this lie. In a malignant form of escapism, Loman retreats to the past and relives the past successes and projects them to the present thus convincing himself of his invincibility. One of Willy’s most poignant recollections is of his son’s penultimate football match. The sole reason that makes Willy remember this match with such smug self-satisfaction is because his son undertook to make a touchdown just for his father. Willy takes to narrating this story to his customers anytime he can and he considers his son’s delight in him as a veritable measure of his own success.
This fake identity of Loman is however recognized by his wife, Linda, as just that: fake. Linda recognizes correctly that her family subsists in denial and that each member of her family has crafted a false identity for himself. She does not however contradict her family members but agrees with her husband in a bid to maintain his husband’s sanity.Willy and Linda have two sons, Happy and Biff, who happily indulge in this escapism. The two sons also have crafted their own identities that are far removed from reality and perceive themselves using these rose-colored glasses. This affects them for much of their lives. Her children however also
By addressing the theme of identity, “Death of a Salesman” reinforces the dynamic nature of identity besides highlighting various other features of identity namely its construction, relational nature, its malleability, and its multiplicity. On the issue of identity construction, Loman and his sons fashion, form, and originate their identities. The play shows that identities are not predetermined and that a person can construct his own identity based on his own perceptions and without due regard to society or the collective.
The play also explores the relational nature of identity. It was previously asserted that identity is relational and that this relational nature of identity is dual. The duality entails its reference to others, inter-subjectivity, social entrenchment, and construction based on contemporaneous social milieu. Willy references his identity and that of his family to others in order to make it seem that his family is above average and that those outside the family are ordinary. For instance, he fervently contests Biff’s assertion that the two of them are run of the mill and mundane people. The problem with this is that Willy’s reference to others is not grounded on social or personal reality but is based on false memories, wishes, and perceptions.
The dynamic nature of identity is also well projected in the play. As previously noted identities are not cast in stone but are mutable, supple, and pliable. Time and geography are some of the powerful forces that can influence a person’s identity. In this play however, no malleability is present but the identity of Willy and his son’s is seemingly predetermined and cast in stone. No amount of social flux is enough to bend or shape their identities. This immutability is what subjects Willy to his death. The central message affirmed by this play is that identity is dynamic and not predetermined and that inflexibility in an individual’s perception of self and disregard of social actors and “other-referencers” can be potentially fatal. Willy’s sons recognize this and their change of attitude helps to save them from their certain fate.
On the aspect of negotiation, the book has a few examples. In his last day, there is a tableau of Loman’s entire life and this is presented in the form of arguments, altercations, reminiscences, and delusions. However, Wilson is unable to negotiate an identity based on this and based on social actors. Various situations where Loman needs to negotiate his own identity based on his reality and the reality of others. For instance, he is offered a job upon his firing but refuses to take the job despite his current circumstances because he wrongly perceives himself as the next David Singleman who was a legendary salesman. This is despite the insistence by Ben who we can describe as a social actor who views reality as it is. Willy Loman however also makes his decision based on his wife’s insistence. However, Linda is part of Willy’s supporting cast and is unable to see reality as it is. This illustrates the powerful role that social actors can play in the construction of a person’s identity. The everlasting message here is that lack of negotiation obliterates bendability and this can break a person.
Finally, it has been opined that multiplicity is a common facet of identity. In this play, the multiple nature of identity does not come out clear as Willy and his family all have a seemingly intractable and sole identity based on their own past and wishes.
2. Wilson, August. Fences. New York: Penguin Group, 1986. Print.
August Wilson’s “Fences” is a cogent depiction of issues related to identity. Written at a time when race relations were a major issue in America, the play tackles head-on the theme of racial prejudice especially as it pertains to the construction of identity. The name of the play itself is a poignant expression of the bounded nature of identity. As discussed in the introductory section of this paper, one of the main definitive aspects of identity is its bounded nature. The boundary or the fence of identity separates members of a group from outsiders. To the insiders, the fence bestows upon them a degree of identicalness while imbuing upon them a degree of uniqueness from the outsiders. Those who are bounded inside therefore are different from those that are bounded outside.
In this play, the fence separates White Americans from Black Americans. The Blacks are outsiders while the Whites are insiders. This fence is what helps in the formation of distinctly different identities for the insiders and outsiders. Wilson rails against this fence for much of the book, contending that Blacks should be allowed to take part in American society without any discrimination and that they should be permitted to participate as Africans with their customs, belief systems, traditions and culture, and be granted American citizenship. Wilson faults African Americans for abandoning their culture. In essence, he faults African Americans for abandoning their identity and seeking to adopt the identity of the Whites. He repudiates the baptism of blacks as African Americans and insists that they should identify themselves as Africans. In other words, Wilson proclaims the multiple nature of identity, asserting that Blacks should identify themselves as Africans and identify themselves as Americans.
In the play, Gabriel is a representation of Africans in America. He has a damaged brain which came about due to war trauma. The war trauma represents the damage inflicted on Africans through centuries of slavery, cultural assimilation, the Middle Passage, and cultural obliteration. Despite his mental disability, Gabriel ekes out a living using what is left of him and this aspect represents the tough life of Africans in America who must try to make best of their lives notwithstanding the damage inflicted upon them.
The recreation of personal identity is also tackled in the book through Rose, Troy’s wife, whose marriage fails. She speaks thus to Troy:
“I got a life too. I gave eighteen years of my life to stand in the same spot with you. Don't you think I ever wanted other things? Don't you think I had dreams and hopes?” (Wilson, 2.1.70).
3. Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Charles L. Webster & Co. 1884. Print.
Identity is a major theme in Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.” The book explores what it is to be American and tries to define the American identity. The first aspect of identity as explored in this book brings out the central role played by education and culture in the creation of identity. For instance, phonetic spelling and dialect is used to show the education and cultural differences among the different characters and hence define their identities. This aspect reinforces the argument that social reality is vital in the construction of identity and reiterates the relational and dynamic features of identity (Twain, 1884).
Huck Finn, who is the main character in the book, travels a journey looking for his identity. This journey is replete with many different situations that force Finn to rethink his position and recast his identity. He has to battle traditional values and freedom and has to assume several different identities before he can find one that is at peace with his conscience. The book also explores the formation of identity in a racial society. One of the characters in the book, Jim, is described severally as a “nigger”. He is a black man whose freedoms are restricted but who is later freed. His identity as a slave has been formed by the many years of servitude he had to endure. Upon his freedom however, he has to experience conflict due to his new nature as a free man and the society’s view of him then and now (Twain, 1884).
In the book, Huckeberry Finn assumes the identity of Tom Sawyer. He assumes this identity of Tom Sawyer so as to be able to free Jim. When he arrives at the Phelps plantation, he learns that the Tom’suncle and aunt are the Phelps and that Tom is being expected by them (Twain, 1884). By assuming the identity of Tom Sawyer therefore, Finn is able to rescue and free Jim. Thus, the book talks about the capacity of an individual to take on a different identity in the short term in order to accomplish a particular mission.
Looked at from another perspective, “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” traces the transition of a young boy into adulthood, capturing the conflicts that emerge as the identity of Finn evolves. As already noted, Finn assumed the identity of Tom Sawyer. This is not the only identity that he assumed. Other identities which he assumed included those of a dead person after killing a pig and the identity of a girl by the name of Sarah Williams. He puts on a girl’s clothing when he pretends to be Sarah Williams. Upon failure of this identity, he next calls himself Mary Williams. After being discovered, he discards the identity of Mary Williamsand takes on the identity of George Peters. All these changes in identity occur in a span of just a few hours. He assumes other identities later on. For instance,upon his escape from Walter Scott, he takes on another identity. The new identity is that of a boy whose family is trappedon the sinking ship. He later on takes the identity of yet another boy whose family has smallpox immediately after he is ashore. Huckleberry Finn takes on the identity of George Jackson when he gets into the Granger field household. He pretends to be an orphan whose parents drowned in the eyes of the Duke and the King (Twain, 1884).
All these changes in identity occur in his boyhood and the author of the book seems to suggest that people in transition must as a necessity try on various different identities before they can discover their identities. Additionally, Finn assumes all the new identities to help him perform some good actions. Changes in identity are for a greater good because they help to, for instance, free Jim or to help people who are aboard the sinking ship. This implies that identity can be discarded at will and a new identity reconstructed in order to attain a short term goal. Additionally, it bolsters the argument that one of the cardinal features of identity is its multiplicity.
4. Twain, Mark. The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson.Hartford: American Publishing Co. 1894. Print.
This book is about the tragedy of identity. The main character in the book is Pudd'nhead Wilson who has to make compromises so as to be able to attain a good standing in his political, social and professional life after moving to Dawson’s Landing. His main occupation is to determine identity of people using fingerprinting. As a lawyer, Wilson is a failure at the beginning. The two aspects of his professional life reveal his multiple identities as a persevering person and as a person who easily gives in to pressure from the society.
The book is a rundown on how society can influence change of a person’s identity. Themes of the book that help to shape the identity of Wilson include gender, race, heritage, law, politics, and economics. It affirms the basic assumption about identity proffered in the introductory section of this paper about the relational, dynamic, and multiple nature of identity.On the multiple nature of identity, multiplicity is on one hand exhibited by Wilson’s perseverance as a collector of fingerprints despite the difficulties encountered and on the other hand by his lack of perseverance that makes him give in easily to the societal expectations of his law career. This paradox defines the multiple nature of identity.
It also reinforces the argument that identity is negotiated. When Wilson arrives at Dawson’s Landing, he has a fixed mind on how issues should be approached. This sets him at a crossroads with the townsfolk who have their own perceptions of right and their set belief systems. Wilson has to maneuver through a complex maze of social inhibitions and negotiate his space within the society. Eventually, he compromises on some of his beliefs and the townsfolk climb down on some of their beliefs. In this way, Wilson restructures his identity, which now conforms to the outlook of the Dawson Landing’s townsfolk.
Related to the previous paragraph is the bounded nature of identity. Wilson arrives to Dawson’s Landing as an outsider. The townsfolk are the insiders and are members of a society that keeps slaves and who are aristocrats. Wilson is a modest attorney from the Scotch pedigree. For him to fit therefore, he has to climb over this barrier that separates him from the townsfolk. Initially labeled a “puddnhead”, he is considered a hero much later after helping to solve some mysterious crimes through fingerprinting. This success only comes after he acquiesces to the norms of the town and sacrificing his true identity. The moral of the story therefore is that an individual can only encounter success if he allows his identity to evolve based on social demands.
5. Morrison, Toni. Sula. Vintage. 2004. Print
Toni Morrison’s Sula is a book whose central character, Sula, spends her whole life searching for her own identity. At the start of the book, Sula loses possession of her home. Some critics have interpreted this loss metaphorically, interpreting the loss as a loss of values or relations. Viewed metaphorically therefore, the event seems to point at a loss of identity. As she searches for her lost identity, Sula has to traverse many lands and ward off many pressures presented in the form of ethical dilemmas and political thorns. These pressures wear her down. Her attempt at going back to her home falters due to her adulterous fling with Nel’s husband.
The story can be interpreted to mean that identity that it is difficult to recover an identity that has been lost. Once Sula loses her home (identity), she goes all over searching for a new identity. During her search, she encounters much travail that wear her down and she decides to reconstruct her previous identity. However, she does not succeed in this reconstruction attempt. The book illustrates the difficulties in the recreation of a lost identity and seems to suggest that it is well nigh impossible to recreate an identity that has been lost. This interpretation lends credence to the previous assertions in the introductory sections about the nature and characteristics of identity. Rather than return to her home (reconstruct her past identity), Sula ought to have found a new home (constructed her identity) based on contemporaneous issues and subject to her new environment. In this sense, the dynamic, relational, malleable, and consensual nature of identity is reinforced. Construction of identity therefore should be based on intervening changes in self and society and should be influenced by social actors and negotiated.
The book also reveals, through Sula, the factors that conspire together to mold one’s identity. In the book, Sula’s outlook and perspectives, and by extension her identity, is shaped by factors such as the society, one’s family, and nature. This revelation in the book is consistent with the earlier observation that identity of the self is relational and can be influenced largely by society and other social actors.
Yet another aspect about identity in Toni Morrison’s “Sula” is that Sula searches for her won identity by isolating herself from a society thatjudges people based on stereotypes. Sula and Nel, who are the main characters in the book, determine to find their identities without reference to society. They do not place much primacy on what the society thinks about them; rather, they are convinced to find their own true identities by themselves. While Sula goes out to seek her identity, Nel learns from Sula. In a sense, the story powerfully explores the role of society in shaping an individual’s identity. The relational nature of identity, especially as pertains to other-reference is affirmed.
Conclusion
This paper explored the theme of identity in American literature. Texts used to explore this theme included Miller Arthur’s “Death of a Salesman”, Morrison Toni’s “Sula”, Mark Twain’s “The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson”, August Wilson’s “Fences”, and Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”.Identity was categorized as personal, collective, and social. Personal identity was defined as the collection of all of a person’s personal attributes. Collective and social identities relate to the common attributes and characteristics displayed by an assemblage of people or by a particular grouping. It was noted that personal identity is shaped largely by a person’s viewpoint and experiences and also by the collective whole. The importance of situating a person in a particular context was also emphasized. The various characteristics of identity were identified. These include the construction of identity, negotiation, dynamism, multiplicity, and relational.
Miller Arthur’s “Death of a Salesman”, Morrison Toni’s “Sula”, Mark Twain’s “The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson”, August Wilson’s “Fences”, and Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” all address identity as a central or major theme. The “Death of a Salesman” gives a powerful exposition of an individual’s loss of identity and the incapacity of the individual to acknowledge change occurring in the collective and at the individual level. This play reinforces the dynamic nature of identity, highlights the features of identity, demonstrates that identities are not predetermined, and projects the dynamic nature of identity.Morrison Toni’s “Sula”demonstrates the impossibility of recovering an identity that has been lost.
Mark Twain’s “The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson “addresses the tragedy of identity. It powerfully portrays the multiple nature of identity and shows how society can influence change of a person’s identity. Identity can be shaped by gender, race, heritage, law, politics, and economics. The book also affirms the relational, dynamic, bounded, and multiple nature of identity. August Wilson’s “Fences”illustrates the bounded nature of identity and explores themes on how outsiders and insiders can coexist harmoniously, tackles head-on the theme of racial prejudice especially as it pertains to the construction of identity, and looks at the recreation of personal identity. Finally, Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”explores what it is to be American and tries to define the American identity. It shows the importance of education and culture in the creation of identity, looks at the construction of identity in a racial society, and shows how a person’s beliefs and value systems can conflict during the search for a new identity.The various identity changes of Finn occur in his boyhood and the author of the book seems to suggest that people in transition must of necessity try on various different identities before they can discover their true identities.
Works cited