Data, Knowledge Management and Information Technology
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Introduction
This section of the paper is an updated outline of the literature review based on several literatures searches on knowledge management that am currently undertaking to find a solution to the problem where the modern industries are experiencing imminent loss of explicit or tacit knowledge when the most experienced and skilled employees retire or quit job due to demographic shift. It is a short summary of the materials found in my references on how they can be used in the literature section of my proposal on knowledge management, which is aimed at finding the actual meaning to the term “knowledge” and then further the research in finding a better model for knowledge management. This would enable sharing of knowledge in organizations for better economic growth.
The modern economy is heavily dependent on how much organizations are going to make use of knowledge management at every level of production of goods and services. According to Mphidi & Snyman (2004), “This objective can only be achieved by first understanding the existing knowledge management and going beyond to add value to it by developing knowledge management tools that will enable sharing of that knowledge and skills” (p. 398) . This is what entails knowledge management, which is the topic of study in this research to reduce the imminent loss of explicit or tacit knowledge when the most experienced and skilled employees retire or quit job due to demographic shift in the organizations.
Documented literature on knowledge management indicates that the term knowledge management has been discussed at length in the society with little or no understanding of the term” (p. 353).
Data, knowledge management and information technology
According to McInerney (2002), “In most cases, organizations interpret the terms data, knowledge management and information technology to have the same meaning” (p. 1016). This has been a major drawback where many organizations with the misunderstanding have invested many resources initiating technology that does not realize the objective of the technology. The information gathered from literature on knowledge management is evidence that the terms knowledge, data, and information technology have different meaning.
In knowledge management process, there are two forms of knowledge namely tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is developed from experiences combined with personal values and opinions. It is not documented for use as public knowledge. (Brandt (2009) adds “Explicit knowledge, on the other hand, is achieved through laid down rules and is documented as public knowledge” (p. 204). This knowledge is stored in books and journals for future reference for any individual who would like to use it.
Tacit and explicit knowledge have a close relationship in that, tacit knowledge can help in acquiring explicit knowledge and explicit knowledge facilitates acquisition of tacit knowledge” (p. 106). However, each of these two forms of knowledge cannot be used independently to create the other in knowledge management. One must incorporate an action. Finally, enhancing acquisition of knowledge management does not imply converting tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and vice versa as it is impossible to turn any of these classes of knowledge into the other.
Data refers to gathered facts in form of objects and events, which cannot be put in any meaningful use because it has not been interpreted” (p. 354). However, when the objective facts are interpreted into a meaningful form then data becomes information. Knowledge management goes beyond understanding the meaning of the three terms to explain the best models of sharing knowledge, which encompasses knowledge management. For instance, the use of theory of knowledge in epistemology defines facts as truth, which therefore, means that since data is a fact, and a fact means knowledge, then data is in itself information. This understanding is shallow and requires review.
Why further research is needed
Further research is necessary because the modern industries are experiencing imminent loss of explicit or tacit knowledge when the most experienced and skilled employees retire or quit job due to demographic shift. Further research is therefore paramount in developing better knowledge management models to retain of knowledge and skills when workers retire or leave jobs before their tacit knowledge is documented .
If knowledge and skills from all workers is retained through better models of knowledge management, organizations will realize faster economic growth by integration of knowledge management in strategic planning and daily tasks.
Role of knowledge management using information and communication technology
Knowledge management technologies have been developed in the last one decade in institutions of higher learning, which have created a leeway for knowledge management that is significant in finding solutions to the current challenges in transfer and sharing of knowledge and technologies in education. Many professionals have attempted to improve knowledge management using information and communication technologies (ICT) to ensure there is no loss of skills after the most experienced workers leave jobs” (p. 123).
According to Brandt (2009), “Good knowledge management empowers individuals and communities to generate and renew themselves in facing new challenges and exploit new opportunities. The service sector has grown and the need for immaterial labor has increased” (P. 176). This has elicited the need to change mode of retention of knowledge, dissemination and exploitation of knowledge. Knowledge management is acquired, dynamic and comprises of smooth flow of specific experiences, opinions, values, and determination of intellectual worth among workers in an organization. Many people have realized the significance of organizational knowledge as important asset in creating competitive advantage. Universities, colleges and institutions of higher learning are entrusted in production of knowledge and skills and continuance of the skills to the future workers, dissemination and learning and are therefore regarded to be in knowledge business” (p. 195).
When organizations engage in knowledge management, the intention is to exploit and develop knowledge assets with an aim of furthering their short and long-term objectives through carrying the same knowledge and skills to every succeeding generation of workers. Therefore, knowledge management is systematic, planned, explicit and deliberate continuous process of developing, disseminating, implementing, recreating, and updating information for realization of organizational objectives. The knowledge to be managed in organizations includes tacit and explicit knowledge. According to “McInerney (2002), “Management of knowledge must comprise of every process linked with identification, sharing and developing on knowledge among the workers in an organization” (p. 1014). These processes require systems to develop and maintain knowledge and facilitate transfer and sharing of knowledge as well as for organizational learning.
Elements of knowledge management
Brandt (2009) suggests, “The basic elements of knowledge managements include creation of new ideas, dissemination of the generated ideas and application of the generated knowledge and retention of important skills to ensure there is no loss of knowledge in an organization when the most skills workers retire” (p. 229). In order effectively to manage knowledge in education, important elements including organizational culture, modern technological tools and personnel are paramount.
Benefits of knowledge management to leaning institutions
According to Corner, Rusly, & Sun (2012), “Institutions that embrace knowledge management have a higher ability to retain tacit knowledge and high rates of graduates every academic year” (p. 347). Corner, Rusly, & Sun (2012) add, “Such institutions effectively determine cost-effective use of information technology for more enrolments” (p. 349). Knowledge management skills assist institutions to transform systems that are transaction based to provide information and have competitive advantage, as there is minimal loss of tacit or explicit knowledge when the workers retire. The transformation is important for modern learning institutions, which are offering international education services for students at any time and place.
Knowledge management using ICT
ICT helps in management of information using a wide range of tools to develop, codify and share information across geographical boundaries. Implementation of knowledge management using ICT in higher institutions of learning involves analyzing management information systems that provides data for students’ profile. Such systems include libraries, collection of electronic materials, social networks and email communications. These systems enable researchers and staffs in higher institutions of learning have access to materials for training and increase awareness. Corner, Rusly, & Sun (2012) argue, “Knowledge management techniques in learning institutions when combined with technologies enhance decision-making and shorten time for curriculum development” (p. 346). Academic and administrative services also improve at a faster rate that is cost effective. Use of student portals that are web based provides important services in research, curriculum development and its changes, creation of programs at faculty level and services dealing with career placement. Such education portal will enable learning institutions to share and distribute knowledge through online learning. This enables creation of data warehouse and data mining.
According to Blair (2002), “knowledge management must facilitate conversion of knowledge from accessible documented sources to an organization and finally connecting the employees with that knowledge” (p. 1024).
Knowledge Management converting processes
In knowledge management, knowledge can be converted from individual to a form available to a group. According to Snyman & Squier (2004), “This requires one to identify desirable knowledge for sharing and putting it in a form that can be regenerated and used for future reference” (p. 340).
Snyman & Squier (2004) suggest, “Conversion may also involve converting data to knowledge. This starts by discovering knowledge. This involves retrieving knowledge that was previously not known from data to a useful form” (p. 338). Knowledge can also be converted from textual sources such as news articles. This requires use of intelligent agents to help in generation of the knowledge from textual form.
Knowledge Connecting processes
Wen (2014) argues, “Connection processes in knowledge management can be from people to knowledge. This requires use of tools in helping people understand information available or providing them with customized services” (p. 46). Knowledge connection also takes place from knowledge to knowledge by appropriately linking documented knowledge through systems to make them more meaningful. One way to link knowledge to knowledge is by use of hypertext. According to Corner, Rusly & Sun (2012), “This can be by use of vertical structured model known as Vatican model or through horizontal, flat model referred to as World Wide Web model” (p. 344). In any of these models, hypertexts should facilitate linking of customized views as users are interested with different information in different ways. The process requires use of multiple routes for a common destination. Knowledge management can also be connected from people to people though use of communication networks where people share information and learn what they know that others do not know. This requires advertising of one’s skills. Technology for intelligent agents is paramount in identification of useful professionals and expertise. Connection of knowledge management may also be between knowledge to people. The process of searching for useful knowledge requires effort and time but is always beneficial. People should be left to search for knowledge they need as this can lead them to discovering new information or finding information that had not been used before. The process requires use of technologies that facilitate knowledge reaching the user.
Organizations need to explore possibilities and facilitate exploration of valuable information within the institution using innovative technological tools. Knowledge management is considered a vital tool in the communication and connection between different subsystems of an organization that is capable of improving “its competitiveness and adaptability and its chances of success” according to Tarun and Bipul (2012) p.50-52. Harnessing the knowledge and making them meaningful quickens effective and efficient decision-making.
In the concept of knowledge, it is located at the apex of the pyramid, below it is information and at the base the data. Data represents raw transaction records and objective statements, while information represents the interpretation of that data to obtain a meaning from it. Knowledge, on the other hand, is a product of interpretation through digging into information with an objective. Knowledge needs to be managed by organizations as an asset of it to facilitate its running of activities. Backman was quoted by Tarun and Bipul (2012) views knowledge management as "the formalization of and access to experience, knowledge, and expertise that create new capabilities, enable superior performance, encourage innovation, and enhance customer value” (p.54-55)
Organization data are continually growing and extremely large due to the increasing entries into the market by competitors and complements, change in policies and technology advancements, thus the role the knowledge management technique get to play in handling the complexities faced at different levels of the organization. Tarun and Bipul (2012) found “a successful knowledge management approach helps to organize data, which further facilitates data analysis and interpretation”. Organizations, therefore, need to respond quickly to the changes in the environment to match the changes and to maintain a competitive advantage.
Knowledge management is a process that requires a detailed and elaborate roadmap to put it in place, and that need be ongoing, persistent and purposeful. An organization will first need to identify which data and information are yet and not yet recognized and systemized in order to incorporate such data. Such data are stored through identified processes and location at different levels of the organization considering its standard operating procedures and process flow sheets. The data then need to be classified whether they are stored in a single source or different sources as structured or unstructured. Finally, the system structure design and implementation is undertaken.
This is done through the incorporation of technological techniques and design of the identified structure for the knowledge management system, with the aim of effective data mining, preventing data redundancy and averting data overload. After the design and development of the system, vigorous tests are conducted followed by maintenance. The people using and who will interact with the system needs to undergo a prior training in order to understand how the system works and its importance and learn its implementation.
Perceptions of the knowledge management system get to influence its implementation. This perception differs with the size of the implementing body and the level and type of workers who the system is implemented too. Susanne and Runar (2012) found out that resource constraints are seen as a factor contributing to the difference in designs and structures. Even as much as expanded knowledge management utilization exist within institutions, some knowledge still goes underutilized hence lost. It is vital for an institution to know which knowledge is important in tackling its challenges. This aids in identification of the relevant knowledge and design of appropriate systems to manage such knowledge. Such processes also assist in learning continuity as organization s will acquire different knowledge from its different members as identified and feed them in the knowledge bank where different individuals for the better of the company can access it.
Lloria was quoted by Hersh and Aladdin (2014) identified Knowledge management to “include information and knowledge creating systems, as well as strategic management and innovation. Knowledge management is the processes that help the organization to generate information to be organized and to convert the important information and the pertinent that are necessary for the different administrative activities for decision making and problem solving” (163-179). Hersh and Aladdin (2014) further felt that there is need to connect accounts and results and quotes Hassan (2008) that “the management of the relation with the customer is the core of marketing knowledge which consequently densities the organization knowledge of current, and probable customers through their shopping behaviors”. Therefore, this interaction enables the organization to take and note observations about their customer and use that data to make interpretations of their customer behavior and preference.
In Hersh and Aladwan (2014), it can be seen that organizations meeting their customer needs and expectations, they are capable of maintaining and detaining their customers through continuous improvements from knowledge management hence achieving the competitive advantage in the market over another market player. New knowledge should get utilized irrespective of the source it is acquired from as it is capable of transforming an institution as a whole if applied accordingly.
The knowledge utilization is the core of knowledge management as if it is not effected productively then the whole process will be futile. Application of knowledge productively ensures efficiency and improves cost reduction mechanisms. The knowledge an organization can employ originates from past mistakes, application of knowledge in new problems whereas comparing knowledge and problem sources. The available knowledge should be applied in adjusting organizational efficiency and in informing strategic direction per the set procedures and linking the knowledge sources to problems.
To sustain organizations and institutions, managers and the executive officers need to employ the use of knowledge for the sustainability of their firms, and have the awareness the impact of the utilization of knowledge to the company’s success. Barbara, Eldon and Jung (2012) quotes Teece "the competitive advantage of firms in today's global economy stems not from market position but from the ownership, employment, or both, of difficult to replicate knowledge assets and the manner in which they are, in fact, deployed." They further state that the managers need to be aware of this if they were to be successful. The economy of firms and institutions can depend on knowledge management, which is sensitive to the organizational design, capabilities and knowledge management mechanism and the exchange of such knowledge for success.
High-level plans put in place to describe and outline the tools, situational methods and specific structure required in managing knowledge gaps and for effective knowledge flow is pegged to efficient institutional knowledge management. This should take consideration of the technology, the structure and the organizational culture in place if the firm is to achieve success desired as they are necessary for achieving organizational knowledge management.
Peter Drucker (1994) is quoted by Barbara, Eldon and Jung (2012) clarifying “knowledge is not impersonal, like money. Knowledge does not reside in a book, a databank, a software program; they contain only information. Knowledge is always embodied in a person; carried by a person; created, augmented, or improved by a person; applied by a person; taught by a person, and passed on by a person.” Knowledge management requires benchmarking, use of best practices and elaborate operating procedures to gain its purpose. There is improvement through not only acquisition but also through exchange of knowledge and information even with external partners, that in turn encourages knowledge upgrade.
Summary
The materials found in the above literature review are useful in the literature review of my doctorate proposal. According to Snyman & Squier (2004), “technology for filtering information is paramount in developing systems for knowledge management” (p. 237). It is evident that information is the main resource in creating new knowledge management models. The research is a knowledge management intensive task that requires the researcher to have all the relevant information I acquired in the literature review. The information has given me an extra insight to support me in decision process and further my action in the study. Any action in the study will be informed thus enabling me to create a reliable knowledge management model as well as new knowledge. According to Use of information filtering technology is paramount in supporting creation of a successful knowledge management system” (p. 797). With use of multidisciplinary approach and use of philosophical disciplines, management theories, change management, organizational management and system engineering will facilitate development of an efficient model for knowledge management in organizations.
References
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Aktharsha, U. S. (2011). A theory of knowledge management. Journal of Contemporary Research in Management, 6(1), 103-119. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/920826624?accountid=149666
Allameh, S. M., Shahin, A., & Tabanifar, B. (2012). Analysis of relationship between knowledge management and customer relationship management with customer knowledge management (case study at azaran valve co.). International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2(10), 65-77. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1446935259?accountid=149666